What is ideology?

• Ideology is a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.
• Ideology is a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are as prominent as the theoretical ones.
• Human societies establish a sense of what is true through a complex discursive process that is often rooted in a handful of socially agreed-upon ideas. These fundamentals of collective worldviews are often called ideologies.

Evolution of the word “ideology”:

It was first used in French as ‘idéologie’ at the time of the French Revolution, introduced by a philosopher, A.-L.-C. Destutt de Tracy, as a short name for “science of ideas” is the study of the origin, evolution, and nature of ideas.

Historical Aspects of Ideology of Pakistan

• The historical experiences provided the base for the ideology of Pakistan. The subcontinent was in turmoil and not only faced a struggle for political supremacy among the nations but also a constant clash of two social orders, which eventually convinced the Muslims that they needed an independent state for themselves.
• Philosophical explanation of Allama Iqbal:

Iqbal’s concept of “Khudi” and philosophy of belief in faith and institutions led him to the concept of nation as a moral consciousness and he started to awaken this moral consciousness in the Muslims of the sub-continent. His concept of “Khudi” was related to the restoration of identity of Muslims in his Allahabad address in 1930.

• Quaid-e-Azam translated it as a definite political reality i.e. the Muslims and Hindus are a separate nation and they cannot live together under the discriminatory environment. Therefore, he claimed it to be an inevitable political reality for Muslims and they had to get a separate homeland to restore their identity as a significant and independent nation.
• The second constituent assembly passed the Objectives resolution in 1949 and gave a legal sanction to Islamic ideology as the ideology of Pakistan. The resolution supposedly proclaimed that the future constitutions of Pakistan would not be based on the European pattern but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam.

Evolution of Muslim nationalism: A historical background

The first conqueror in India by force was, Muhammad Bin Qasim in the second half of the 8th century through Sind, and this paved the way for other Muslim invaders. Qutbuddin Aibak started the Culture of Islam empire in the 12th century AD in India to build the First Muslim Empire of India namely the Slave Dynasty and Khaljis. There is evidence that during the 14th and 15th centuries the Delhi sultanate was in decline and the possible Hindu resurgence looming. But, a Chaghtai Turk, in the person of Babur, got the better of Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat in 1526, and the Rajputs at Khanua in 1527 and founded the Mughal Empire. This brought Muslim civilization to India and Persian-shaped Urdu, Indo-Islamic architecture came to the fore and the Mughals made standards of administration, art, and culture which were taken forward by the British.

1857 War of Independence

• The most dramatic event of the pre-Ripon phase of British imperialism was the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857-58 in India which is sometimes termed as the First War of Indian Mutiny or the Indian uprising. This was due to indignation over British social welfare, high taxes, and relations of Indian landlords, and soldiers. It was initiated in March 1857 when Mangal Pandey tried to kill British officers and ended up in furtherance when sepoys in Meerut refused to bite the new Enfield cartridges. The mutineers seized Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar the king. Even though factors of the revolt fragmented across northern India and came to be a monumental protest against the British control of the Indian subcontinent, there were many regions and princely states such as Punjab and Rajputana who continued to endorse the British. It was however crushed by mid-1858, the British avenged themselves and this called for severe repercussions. After the revolt, the British disintegrated the East India Company came directly to govern India, and established British rule in India in 1858 known as the British Raj. Some of the features include Queen Victoria’s proclamation to the people of India promising them the status of Britons in Britain.

Causes of the war of independence 1857

1. British expansionism

Forcible annexation of Indian states on one pretext or another, particularly the annexationist zeal of Lord Dalhousie played havoc with the trust existing between the Company and the protected Nawabs. In 1852, General Dalhousie applied the doctrine which claimed that when a ruler died without an heir the British would annex his lands. So Nagpur and Jhansi fell into the hands of the British. It was resented greatly as it was used as an excuse to take land e.g. in 1856 Nawab of Oudh died, he had several heirs but Dalhousie took it under British control by claiming that he governed badly. Annexation also resulted in the disbanding of state armies and confiscation of properties of the nobility, leaving thousands of elite as paupers, swelling the ranks of the disgruntled.

2. Military reforms and unrest

British Indian Army was the first and the best institution East India Company had introduced in India. Well-trained, well-equipped, and well-paid Indian soldier, proud of being a servant of the Company Bahadur, was the vanguard of British imperialism in the Subcontinent. However, as the Company changed from a trading organization to a ruling elite, the soldier lost his importance over some time. It also adversely affected his loyalty towards his employer. There were several reasons for this alienation of a common Sepoy of the Company:

• The local currency had devalued due to inflation, but the Indian military men kept on receiving their salaries and allowances same as before. The British officers and soldiers constituted only a small fraction of the total force of the East India Company but they got more than half of the military expenses leaving the native soldiers little money. The prospects for promotion were bleak for Indian soldiers and with the recruitment of more British soldiers it was going to get worse. Moreover, conflicts in communication and the Company’s rules which they believed infringed on Islamic traditions made the native soldiers furious. Churchill also highlights the last cause of the revolt as rumors that cartridges for Enfield rifles were greased with cow and pig fat the use of which is sacrilege for Hindus and against the teachings of Islam hence forcing Indians to accept the Christian religion.

3. New taxes and economic frustration

The occupation of India by the East India Company was not for any altruistic motives, but rather for pure mercantilist objectives. It was exploitative imperialism, pauperizing the colonies for the benefit of the center. This exploitation through fiscal, monetary, and commercial policies transferred huge resources from India leaving every section of society economically frustrated.

• Business and commercial classes got frustrated due to the discouragement of Indian manufacturing through high taxes, large-scale import of manufactured goods from England, and export of only minerals from India, all creating negative multiplier effects.
• Systematic annexation of princely states by the East India Company through dubious means left hundreds of their soldiers jobless, adding to the pool of disgruntled Indians. These were joined by the pauperized nobility after the confiscation of their ancestral lands/ jagirs on one pretext or another.

4. Exclusion of Indians from higher posts

The British thought that the Indians were not suitable for the higher posts in their administrative structure. They lacked faith in the sincerity of the Indians. Contempt for Indians and racial prejudice were other reasons why the Indians were denied higher positions in the administration. Thus, the complete exclusion of Indians from all positions of trust and power in the administration, and the manning of all higher offices both in the civil government and the military forces by the British brought forth discontent and a sense of humiliation among the people.

5. Missionary activities

There was a strong movement in England to spread Christianity in India and convert its Hindus and Muslim subjects to that faith. The Charter Act of 1813 permitted Christian missionaries permitted to enter the Company’s territories in India to propagate their religion and spread Western education. The Christian missionaries took every opportunity to expose the abuses in the Hindu as well as the Islamic religion. They denounced idolatry, ridiculed the Hindu gods and goddesses, and criticized the philosophy and principles of Hinduism and Islam. The teaching of Christian doctrines was made compulsory in educational institutes run by the missionaries. Thus, the interference of the British authorities in social customs and practices through social legislation and the encouragement given by the government to Christian missionaries in their proselytizing activities created a sense of apprehension and hatred in the minds of Indians.

6. Cultural Invasion in India

From the early 1800s, the company attempted to develop the Indian economy and legal system. Some changes such as outlawing sati (a widow’s suicide by fire) and child marriage may have been well-meaning. However, the British imposed them without any regard for the Indian culture. In addition, the concept of modernization and Westernization started to prevail in society. Thus, the fears that the British were also trying to force conversion to Christianity upon the Indian people led to a widespread feeling that the traditional way of life was threatened.

7. Interference in religion

In a conservative and traditional country like India, religion was the last thing the Company should have interfered with. There were several sources of this tension;

• Though not official policy, officers keen to make India a Christian country for which they frequently made land grants to churches and missions out of national exchequers generally interpreted as a strategy to spread Christianity
• Frequent famines left many orphans who were taken into Christian orphanages giving birth to rumors that famines were deliberately caused by the British to get the maximum number of children for their conversion to Christianity.

8. Lack of communication between the ruler and the ruled

Causes of failure of the 1857 War of Independence

• Lack of central leadership

The lack of strong political and capable military leadership played the most crucial role in this fiasco. The rebellious forces selected a dying, frail man as their political leader, who had no desire to play the role. He was neither a brave general nor an astute leader of the people. The same was the case with the military leadership of the rebels, which was no match for the brilliant British leadership. On top of it was the non-existence of any well-managed centralized command and control system that could provide the proper guidance and plan to the rebel forces.

• Deficient equipment and techniques

The British proved to be formidable foes, largely due to their superior weapons, training, and strategy, which play a decisive role in any military contest. The very Enfield rifle that the rebels had refused to operate became their nemesis for its accuracy. Similarly, the use of wireless by the British played a key role in their success, as they were able to convey the news about the outbreak of rebellion to their field commanders in all the areas under their control. Once informed, the respective governors took effective measures to arrest the spread of the uprising. As luck would have it, the main arsenal of the rebels in Delhi was destroyed in a fire, either accidentally or by the traitors, leaving the defending forces with a limited quantity of ammunition. Attempts by the rebels to collect modern equipment from Russia failed, as their one-member delegation (Rao Tularam) sent to Russia for this purpose died on the way.

• The limited nature of the revolt
• Financial issues

The war started with mismanagement and lack of planning. The emperor was already penniless and asked for loans from the Delhi landlords who saved their money, not their freedom. However, the Britishers on the other hand were wealthy and had the support of the British crown.

• Unplanned war

Although the ground was ripe for such an eventuality, the uprising itself was a spontaneous and, hence, unplanned act. According to Malleson and Wilson, the revolutionaries had planned to start the War throughout the country on May 31, 1857. However, the cartridge incident resulted in its premature outbreak. It was doomed to fail right from the start because of this lack of vision, strategy, and planning on the part of the rebel forces.

• Internal conspiracies and rifts

After the euphoria of the initial revolt was over, inter-communal, inter-racial, and inter-regional rifts started among the rebels. The battle cry of the Muslims to wage Jihad became anathema for the Hindus. Many Indians supported the British, due to their dislike of the idea of the return of Mughal rule. Durbar intrigues and personal rivalries precluded any common strategy of war. In Awadh, Sunni Muslims, perceiving it to be a Shia rebellion, refused to join it as they did not want to see a return to Shiite rule. Instead, they declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer, who led the Sunni forces against the British in the famous Battle of Shamli.

• Poor communication among all warring factions of the subcontinent
• Hegemony of East India Company
• Poor resource mobilization

• After the 1857 War of Independence ended, the British succeeded the Mughals and one imperialist sat in the seat of another. With the advent of the British and after the mutiny of 1857, Muslims awoke to the realization of their true position in India. So far, they had either ruled the country or enjoyed the illusion of doing so. The downfall of the Mughals put an end to the existence of Muslims as a separate and dominant group in Indian political life.
• The Britishers believed that Muslims, which caused further discomfort for them, staged the 1857 uprising. Muslims for the first time realized that they were nothing but a weak, powerless, and supine minority. This was the first casting of seeds for nationalism and the first awakening to the need for solidarity.

ALI-GARH MOVEMENT

• By leading the cultural movement of Tayyab, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan reformed social life and tied literature, education, religion with Muslim confidence. He tried to change the British perception of Muslims as rebels and also the perception of the Europeans that education from the Western world hurt Islam. He established the Science Society in 1864, published a periodical Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq, and founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 to impart Modern education. He also gives solutions to social problems by urging Muslims to be social beings through the practice of social ethics and to take up lucrative jobs. In politics, he supported the Two-Nation Theory, demanded Muslims be loyal to the British, and pushed for a separate electorate paving the way to the future of Muslim nationalism.

FORMATION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)

The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 as a secular political party and was primarily interested in reforming the way India was governed by the Raj. The early Congress was not associated with any particular religion – it included Hindus, Christians, Muslims, and Parsis but the majority of their membership was made up of Hindus. In 1883, Allan Octavian Hume outlined an idea for a body representing Indian interests and this idea was implemented in 1885. During the early 20th Century, the interests of Congress evolved from wanting more freedom within the British Empire to wanting greater control of their own government. The Congress said they represented all Indians, however, the Muslim League was formed in 1906 to represent the interests of Indian Muslims in a country of which around three-quarters was made up of Hindus.

FORMATION OF ALL-INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE

• Muslims were extremely disappointed by the anti-muslim stance of the congress and the events occurring after the partition of Bengal strengthened the desire of Muslims to organize themselves politically as a separate community. Thus, the All-India Muslim League was established in 1906.
• The basic objectives of league comprised of creating a feeling of loyalty among Muslims and also towards the British government so the misconceptions among the both parties could be removed. Secondly, to safeguard the political rights of Muslims and bring them to the notice of the government. Lastly, to prevent among Muslims, the rising prejudicial feelings against other communities of India.
• Muslim league can be declared as a child of 4 factors i.e.:

1. Sir Syed’s belief that Muslims are a separate entity
2. Hindu character of the Indian National Congress, which did not allow the Muslims to associate themselves with other Indians.

• Agitation against the partition of Bengal conveyed to Muslims the Hindu designs of domination and persistence.

1. Muslims desire to have their own exclusive electorates for all the representative institutions.

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